Classical Prose Movement

The Classical Prose Movement (Chinese: 古文運動; pinyin: gǔwén yùndòng) of the late Tang dynasty and the Song dynasty in China advocated clarity and precision rather than the florid pianwen (駢體文) or parallel prose style that had been popular since the Han dynasty. Parallel prose had a rigid structure and came to be criticized for being overly ornate at the expense of content.

The aim of the guwen stylists was to follow the spirit of pre-Han prose rather than to imitate it directly. They used elements of colloquial language to make their writings more direct.

The movement also had political and religious aspects, as Confucian scholars tried to combat the influence of Taoism and Buddhism on the emperors. Some also saw it as an effective tool to expose the reality of corruption and weakness in the central government.

Tang Dynasty

The motivation for writing style revolution was triggered by the social-political turmoil following the Anlushan Rebellion. Reform-minded scholars seek to repair and renew the empire that suffered multiple crisis including a weak central government plagued by regional warlords, corrupted bureaucrats, poverty of the commoners, and prevalent practice of Buddhism and Taoism which weakened the economy. The tool of revival was the knowledge and practical application of classical Confucian ideologies, with prose writing serving as the vehicle for the reformist message.^[1]

The first distinguished stylists of the movement were Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan of the ninth-century^[2], who were not only accomplished writers but also eminent theorists, providing the foundation of the movement. Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan established several principles for prose writing. They believed that prose writing should serve as a vehicle for expressing ideas and arguments effectively, rather than merely showcasing rhetorical skill. Additionally, they encouraged writers to study the classics extensively, not only the Confucian classics but also literary texts from other philosophers and authors, to enrich their content and form. While they valued the study of classical works, they also emphasized the importance of innovation, advising against mechanical imitation of the classics. Furthermore, they believed that authors should cultivate their inner selves, allowing their writings to be infused with character and emotion.^[3]

After the deaths of Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan, the Classical Prose Movement experienced a decline. Some of their students adopted archaic language that hindered comprehension,^[4] while others neglected the importance of crafting well-structured essays. By the late Tang dynasty, the reformist spirit had diminished among scholars, and pianwen (parallel prose) regained prominence as the predominant literary style.^[5]

Furthermore, the government only allowed the use of pianwen for official use, so those who want to be officials had to learn that style. ^{[citation needed]}

Song dynasty

The theme was revisited by Song dynasty scholar official Fan Zhongyan, as part of the political and social reform initiatives he advocated for.^[6] The Confucian reformers held that prose writing, particularly writings required for civil service examinations, shall focus on statecraft and Confucian Classics, instead of euphonious composition. Fan's promotion of the "ancient style" served both political and ethical grounds, as he believed scholar officials with moral cultivation and administrative skills will improve government efficiency and commoner's lives. As such, the lettered class shall shift their focus from floridity to the substance of what they write. ^[7]

Ouyang Xiu, a younger associate and avid follower of Fan Zhongyan,^[8] developed into a literary giant and leader in reviving the ancient style.^[9] Ouyang and his literary friends carried over the spirit of classical prose to poetry, and further to a larger effort to reform writing and learning in general, so that writing would be a vehicle for purpose and reflection, rather than a display of talent. ^[10] Ouyang followed the Tang pioneers Han Yu and Liu Zongyuan for their "talents" and "natural flow" in prose writing, but skipped the "obscure" and "strange" elements contained in their prose work.^[11] In his own unofficial writing practice of letters, prefaces, accounts, and grave inscriptions, Ouyang "cultivated a highly personal tone" and incorporated an extensive range of "subjects, moods, and themes".^[12] To "write naturally" was a piece of advice he offered to younger writers, and the principle he followed through in his prose creation.^[13]^[14]

Ouyang was also well known for his directives in the 1057 imperial examination, where candidates writing in the ancient prose style were selected over candidates using the euphuistic or Imperial Academy style.^[12] Several of the passing candidates would turn into prominent literary figures, including Su Shi, Su Xun, and Zeng Gong.^[14]

References

^ Yuan 1999, pp. 360–363.
^ Owen 2010, pp. 315–316.
^ Yuan 1999, pp. 366–368.
^ Yuan 1999, pp. 382–383.
^ Yuan 1999, p. 384.
^ Mo 1999, p. 52.
^ Egan 2010, pp. 385–386.
^ Egan 2010, p. 386.
^ Zhang 2022, p. 206.
^ Egan 2010, pp. 388–389.
^ Zhang 2022, p. 207.
^ ^a ^b Egan 2010, pp. 396.
^ Egan 2010, pp. 397.
^ ^a ^b Zhang 2023, p. 238.

Bibliography

Egan, Ronald (2010). "The Northern Song (1020–1126)". In Owen, Stephen (ed.). The Cambridge history of Chinese literature. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. ISBN 9780521855587.
Mo, Lifeng; Huang, Tianji; Yuan, Xingpei, eds. (1999). 中国文学史第三卷 [History of Chinese Literature] (in Chinese). Vol. III. Beijing: Higher Education Press. ISBN 7-04-006387-5.
Owen, Stephen (2010). "The Cultural Tang(650–1020)". In Owen, Stephen (ed.). The Cambridge history of Chinese literature. Vol. 1. Cambridge: Cambridge university press. ISBN 9780521855587.
Yuan, Xingpei; Luo, Zongqiang, eds. (1999). 中国文学史第二卷 [History of Chinese Literature] (in Chinese). Vol. II. Beijing: Higher Education Press. ISBN 7-04-006387-5.
Zhang, Longxi (2022). A History of Chinese Literature. London: Routledge. pp. 206–207. ISBN 978-1-003-16417-3.
Zhang, Yi (2003). Luo, Zongqiang; Chen, Hong (eds.). 中国古代文学发展史 - 中 (Zhongguo gu dai wen xue fa zhan shi) (1st ed.). Tianjin: Nan kai da xue chubanshe. ISBN 7-310-01915-6.

Classical Prose Movement

Tang Dynasty

Song dynasty

See also

References

Bibliography

Further reading